< home # store # services # articles # game # app #contact >

Mesopotamia is one of the earliest sites of the neolithic revolution. From around 10,000 BC. It has been identified as having “inspired some of the most important developments in human history”. Including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops, and the development of cursive script. Early mathematics, astronomy, and agriculture may have also been developed here. It is recognized as the cradle of some of the world’s earliest civilizations (1)

In a broader sense, the name is for the area bound by the Zagros Mountains on the north east, and, on the southwest by the edge of the Arabian Plateau. Then stretching from the Persian Gulf in the southeast. All the way to the spurs of the Taurus Mountains in the northwest. Roughly equivalent to modern-day Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria, and western Iran (2)

One of the key features of Mesopotamia was its fertile soil, which was ideal for agriculture
The regular flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers created a rich silt that allowed for productive farming. The development of irrigation systems, enabled the cultivation of crops such as barley, wheat, dates, and various fruits and vegetables. The surplus food production in Mesopotamia led to the rise of settled farming communities.    In combination with its location on trade routes led to the development of early urban centers.   

Mesopotamia is renowned for its significant contributions to human history and culture. It was home to several ancient civilizations, including the Sumerians, and Akkadians. While into the bronze age. Babylonians, and Assyrians. Who all played a crucial, well studied role, in shaping the course of human civilization.

The civilization of Sumer, located in southern Mesopotamia, is credited with many notable achievements
It is considered the world’s earliest cities, dating back to the 4th millennium BCE. The Sumerians developed the first known system of writing called cuneiform. Which was impressed on clay tablets. They also made advancements in mathematics, astronomy, architecture, and law. Unbeknownst elsewhere.

Etymology
The regional toponyms Mesopotamia are: (/ˌmɛsəpəˈteɪmiə/, Ancient Greek: Μεσοποταμία ‘[land] between rivers’; Arabic: ‫ن‬ ‫ْي‬ ‫َد‬ ‫ِف‬ ‫ا‬ ‫َّر‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ٱ‬ ‫د‬ ‫َال‬ ‫ِب‬; Bilādar-Rāfidayn or ‫ن‬ ‫ْي‬ ‫َر‬ ‫ْه‬ ‫َّن‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ٱ‬ ‫ْني‬ ‫َب‬ Bayn an-Nahrayn; Persian: ‫ن‬ ‫ا‬ ‫د‬ ‫و‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ن‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ی‬ ‫م‬ miyân rudân; Syriac: ‫ܢ‬ ‫ܝ‬ ‫ܪ‬ ‫ܗ‬ ‫ܢ‬ ‫ܬ‬ ‫ܝ‬ ‫ܒ‬; and, Beth Nahrain: “land between the two rivers”.

Mesopotamia is chronological, and an environmental connotation. But names like Syria, Jazira, and Iraq are believed to further describe the region. After muslim conquests. And, midst various modern century encroachments
Other distinctions are made between northern or upper Mesopotamia; and, lower Mesopotamia. As well as, amongst changed climatic conditions.

Geography
In the neighbouring Armenian highlands. Both the Euphrates and Tigris rivers have their headlands. The entire river system drains a vast mountainous region. From the desert expanse is in the north. Gives way to a 15000 square km or 5800 square mile. Region of lagoons, marshes, reedbanks, and mudflats in the south. Before emptying into the Persian gulf. High peaks of the northern Zargos mountains, and the Armenian highlands, aid in irrigation. And, from the precipitation higher up. Usually aided in determining the farmings usefulness. Through this, and the division of labour, for constructing and maintaining the canals. Irrigation became essential. (3)

Nomadic pastoralism
Throughout the dry summer months. Nomads hearded sheep and goats, (and, later camels). From the river out into the desert fringes. In the wet summer months. Because these areas are relatively bare of building stone. Precious metals, timber, stone and trade items were also bartered (4). It allowed greater nomadic trade and development.
In the south, and around Sumner, a giant fishing culture has existed, adding to the flavour and cultural mix.

Writing, rivers and clay: the Nile valley in ancient Egypt; the Indus Valley civilization in the Indian subcontinent; the Yellow River in China; and, Mesopotamia have something in common
That was clay. Because of the time, and sheer amount of it, these were the first civilizations found to use clay writing.    Mesopotamia was located on the trade route between these areas.

Periodization, pre & protohistory until about the middle bronze age
Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (10,000–8700 BC)
Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (8700–6800 BC)
Jarmo (7500–5000 BC)
Hassuna (~6000 BC)
Samarra (~5700–4900 BC)
Halaf cultures (~6000–5300 BC)
Ubaid period (~6500–4000 BC)
Uruk period (~4000–3100 BC)
Jemdet Nasr period (~3100–2900 BC)
Early Bronze Age
Early Dynastic period (~2900–2350 BC)
Akkadian Empire (~2350–2100 BC)
Third Dynasty of Ur (2112–2004 BC))

Language into the Bronze Age
The earliest written language was Sumerian. Initially, the logographical system of Sumerian cuneiform scripts took years to master. (5)
During the Akkadian empire, Akkadian came to be the dominant language. Though Sumerian was retained for administrative, religious, literary and scientific purposes.
There was also Subartuan and others too.

Cuneiforms (or wedge shaped clay tablets) have been found, and dated to mid-4th millennium BC
Cuneiform literally means “wedge-shaped”, due to the triangular tip of the stylus used for impressing signs on wet clay. Each cuneiform appears to be standardized using the development of pictograms.

7 archaic tablets are the earliest cuneiform from Mesopotamia
They came from a temple dedicated to the goddess Inanna at Uruk. Archaeologists labelled the building as Temple C. They had the Sumerian language.

Literature “Women as well as men learned to read and write”    (6)
Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students and learning. Commentaries on older texts ,and explanations of words, phrases and obscurities had begun, and continued onwards.

Popular literature was passed down. The ‘Epic of Gilgamesh’, was written, and translated through generations and time. Each of the 12 divisions. Contained a story of single Gilgameshs adventure(s).

Science and technology Mathematics
“Land between rivers” math and science was based on a sexagesimal (base 60) numeral system. This is the source of the 60-minute hour, the 24-hour day, and the 360-degree circle.
The Sumerian calendar was based on the moon and sun (lunisolar). It had three seven-day weeks of a lunar month. And was important in early map-making and measurement of area.

Astronomy: temple priesthoods attempted to associate current events with certain positions of the planets and stars
Some scholars were very adept at mathematics. They could predict eclipses and solstices. Using astronomy, they thought that everything happened on purpose. Most relating to omens and religion.

Based on cycles of the moon, astronomers worked out the 12-month calendar
They divided the year into two seasons: summer and winter. The origins of astronomy as well as astrology believe to have dated around this time.

This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy. In Seleucid and Parthian times, the astronomical reports were thoroughly scientific. How much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain? The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets. Is considered to be a major episode in the history of astronomy. But it was later on.

Medicine and metallurgy
Dating to the Babylonian period. The oldest texts on medicine are found.    A diagnostic handbook was written by the Ummânū, or chief scholar. Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa, around 1000 or 1100 bc. (7)

Along with Egyptian medicine, a concept of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, prescriptions and enemas. Were all introduced in Mesopotamia
Esagil-kin-apli’s text, contains a list of medical symptoms, and often detailed empirical observations. Along with it. Were logical rules, used in combining, and observed symptoms on the body. With its diagnosis and prognosis for the patient. A starting point for the medical system we have today.

Technology
From the bronze age, they became some of the first. Many technologies were invented. Including metal and copper-working, glass and lamp making, textile weaving, flood control, water storage, irrigation and more. Palaces were decorated extravagantly. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were begin for use on armour as well as for different weapons.

Religion
The Sumerian word for universe is An-ki. Which refers to the powerful god: An, and goddess Ki. Their son was Enlil. The air god. They believed that Enlil was the most powerful god. He was the chief god of the pantheon. Religon was first recorded. Mesopotamians believed the universe was born from an enormous sea. And, that the world was a flat disc (8). Surrounded by a huge, holed space. And, above that, was heaven. Though there were variations.

Philosophy
According to some. Mesopotamian wisdom. Which embodied ethics in the forms of dialectic, dialogues, epic poetry, folklore, hymns, lyrics, prose works, and proverbs. Can be traced back to the origins of philosophy(9). Their reasons and rationality developed beyond empirical observations, and, expanded outwards.

Games
Hunting was popular. Fighting and wrestling was frequently featured on art. And, other games like polo may have been played(10). With men sitting on the shoulders of other men rather than on horses.
Known as the “royal game of Ur”, they also played a board game similar to backgammon.

Work
Most boys were taught their father’s trade or were apprenticed out(11). Girls usually stayed home with their mothers. To learn housekeeping, cooking and craft. As well, look after young children. Some children would help with crushing grain, cleaning birds; the crops or animals. Women had rights. They could own property, and, get a divorce(12).

Agriculture
The word Ensi, was used to describe the official, who organized all facets of temple agriculture work. Irrigated agriculture spread southwards from the Zagros foothills from about 5,000 BC. In this south, agriculture was only possible with irrigation and good drainage. Major cities such as Ur and Urik were near the Euphrates. Others, like Lagash, was build on branches of the Tigris. So it had to be built out. For feed and fertilizer, it was worth it. They could trade and provided further benefits since there were fish, cattle and livestock. They used wooden plows, to soften soil, before planting crops. Barley, onions, grapes, turnips, apples and more. If it was a bad year. Cows, goats and lambs were also kept.

Some of the first cities
Among the vast river(s), Sumerians built some of the first cities. Because of the irrigation canals, and location. They were very successful. Along with it though, there were vast stretches of open desert or swamp. And, at times communication was difficult and, could become dangerous.

Warfare
To grow required land, as well as, canals for food and resources. With the end of the Uruk phase (4000-3100bc). Warfare, and, walled cities grew. Arguments were written on several tablets. Occurring in 3200 BC. Before recording any actual war. Though it was not common until about 2500 BC.(13)

Massacre at the marshes of southern Babylonia
At the end of the Early Dynastic III period (2600–2350 BC). Is when the Stele of the Vultures was created. It is the oldest known celebration of a massacre in the world. Commemorating the victory, of Eannatum of Lagash. Over a neighbouring rival. The city of Umma.

From this point on, chasing enemies trying to run away, was incorporated into the political system. And, it became known. That a neutral city may act for some that are hiding in the reeds
Acting as an arbitrator, for between two rival cities. This helped to form unions. And, it eventually, lead to regions and states. Many fights were successful, with the enemy defeated. Or, either desperately escaping, and hiding amongst reeds.

Early bronze age Mesopotamian art
Art rivalled that of ancient neighbours in Egypt. It was some of the most sophisticated, grand, and elaborate art. Things changed later though. Because in the bronze and metal ages. There was metallurgy and war.

Since little paintings survived. During the neolithic age. The main emphasis, has been on what was found. Many durable forms of sculpture, in stone and clay. Have been found. Some of them were painted.

The Guennol Lioness is an outstanding small limestone figure from Elam of about 3000–2800 BC, part man and part lion (14)

Sculptures from the Sumerian and Akkadian period generally had large, staring eyes, and long beards of men
Many masterpieces have also been found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur (2650BC), including the two figures of a Ram in a Thicket, the Copper Bull and a bull’s head on one of the Lyres of Ur. And, women’s headpieces and jewelry.

Architecture: pictorial representation of buildings, texts on building practices, and what’s left of archaeological evidence. Represents some of Mesopotamia’s great architecture
Scholarly literature usually concentrates on temples, palaces; city walls, and, gates. But other monumental buildings, existed like residences and schools. (15)

Brick was the dominant material. As the material was freely available (16)
Whereas building stone had to be brought a considerable distance. At Ziggurat for example. Cities often had large gateways and stone. Ishtar gate too. And, these sort of buildings became quite large, into, the bronze age.

Highlights include: Temple complexes at Uruk around 3000 BC;

Temples and palaces from the early Dynastic period (2900-23500bc): Khafajah and Tell Asmar in the Diyala River valley;

Sanctuary of Enlil at Nippur;

Sanctuary of Nanna at Ur; and,
Probably some others.

Trade

Trade: Starting in the 4th millennium BC (3000 BC). Mesopotamian civilization traded with ancient Egypt (17). Around 2000 BC, trade with the Indus Valley civilization flourished too (18)
For much the neolithic period and history, Mesopotamia served as a trade nexus. Part of a trade route before our more modern times.

The historical significance of Mesopotamia lies in its influence on subsequent cultures and civilizations. Many of its cultural and technological achievements, such as writing, math, astrology, architecture, art and early water management, farming and trade. Influenced the development of later societies in the near east and beyond. Mesopotamia’s impact on human history cannot be overstated, and its legacy continues to be studied and appreciated today.

Cite: 1) Sissakian, Varoujan K.; Adamo, Nasrat; Al-Ansari, Nadhir; Mukhalad, Talal; Laue, Jan (January 2020). “Sea Level Changes in the Mesopotamian Plain and Limits of the Arabian Gulf: A Critical Review” (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340066759). Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering. 10 (4): 88–110.

2) Milton-Edwards, Beverley (May 2003). “Iraq, past, present and future: a thoroughly-modern mandate?” (https://web.archive.org/web/20101208112958/http://www.historyandpolicy.org/pape rs/policy-paper-13.html). History & Policy. United Kingdom. Archived from the original (http://w ww.historyandpolicy.org/papers/policy-paper-13.html) on 8 December 2010.

3) “Migrants from the Near East ‘brought farming to Europe’ ” (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/scienc e-environment-11729813). BBC. 10 November 2010. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20 101213144452/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11729813) from the original on 13 December 2010.

4) Emberling, Geoff (2015). “Mesopotamian cities and urban process, 3500–1600 BCE”. In Yoffee, Norman (ed.). Early Cities in Comparative Perspective, 4000 BCE–1200 CE (https://bo oks.google.com/books?id=SQS7BwAAQBAJ). The Cambridge World History. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19008-4. P 256

5) “Ancient History in depth: Mesopotamia” (https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/cultures/mesop otamia_gallery_03.shtml). BBC History. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017062823444 5/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/cultures/mesopotamia_gallery_03.shtml) from the original on 28 June 2017

6) Tetlow, Elisabeth Meier (28 December 2004). Women, Crime and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society: Volume 1: The Ancient Near East (https://books.google.com/books?id=ONkJ_Rj1 SS8C&pg=PA75). A&C Black. p. 75. ISBN 9780826416285. Archived (https://web.archive.org/ web/20200522152934/https://books.google.com/books?id=ONkJ_Rj1SS8C&pg=PA75) from the original on 22 May 2020

7) H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, pp. 97–98, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-13666-5. Pg 97-98

8) Lambert, W. G. (2016). Ancient Mesopotamian Religion and Mythology: Selected Essays (https ://books.google.com/books?id=dTLWQddp8zwC&pg=PA111). The Cosmology of Sumer & Babylon. Mohr Siebeck. p. 111. ISBN 978-3161536748. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/ 20220501165046/https://books.google.com/books?id=dTLWQddp8zwC) from the original on 1 May 2022

9) Giorgio Buccellati (1981), “Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia”, Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1)

10) Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea (1998), Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia.

11) Harris, Rivkah (2000), Gender and Aging in Mesopotamia.

12) Kramer, Samuel Noah (1963) The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character (https://ar
chive.org/details/sumerianstheirhi00samu). The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226- 45238-8

13) Winter, Irene J. (1985). “After the Battle is Over: The ‘Stele of the Vultures’ and the Beginning of Historical Narrative in the Art of the Ancient Near East”. In Kessler, Herbert L.; Simpson, Marianna Shreve. Pictorial Narrative in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts, Symposium Series IV. 16. Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art. pp. 11–32. ISSN 0091-7338 (https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0091-7338).

14) Frankfort, Henri (1970). The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient. Pelican History of Art (4th ed.). Penguin (now Yale History of Art). ISBN 0-14-056107-2. pg. 24-37

15) Dunham, Sally (2005), “Ancient Near Eastern architecture”, in Snell, Daniel (ed.), A Companion to the Ancient Near East, Oxford, England: Blackwell, pp. 266–280, ISBN 978-0-631-23293-3.

16) “Mesopotamia” (http://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/). World History Encyclopedia. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210410223519/https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/) from the original on 10 April 2021.

17) Shaw, Ian. & Nicholson, Paul, The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, (London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 109.

18) Wheeler, Mortimer (1953). The Indus Civilization (https://books.google.com/books?id=9cs7AAA AIAAJ). Cambridge history of India: Supplementary volume (3 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (published 1968). p. 111. ISBN 9780521069588. Archived (https://web.archive .org/web/20210410083125/https://books.google.com/books?id=9cs7AAAAIAAJ) from the original on 10 April 2021. Retrieved 10 April 2021. “In calculating the significance of Indus contacts with Mesopotamia, it is obvious that the economic vitality of Mesopotamia is the controlling factor. Documentary evidence there vouches for vigorous commercial activity in the Sarginid and Larsa phases […]”

Bibliography: Seymour, Michael (2004). “Ancient Mesopotamia and Modern Iraq in the British Press, 1980– 2003 (https://www jstor org/stable/10 1086/383004) Current Anthropology 45 (3): 351–368 doi:10.1086/383004 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F383004). ISSN 0011-3204 (https://search.world dcat.org/issn/0011-3204). JSTOR 10.1086/383004 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/38300 4). S2CID 224788984 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224788984). Archived (https:// web.archive.org/web/20220430014407/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/383004) from the original on 30 April 2022.

Atlas de la Mésopotamie et du Proche-Orient ancien, Brepols, 1996 ISBN 2-503-50046-3

Foster, Benjamin R.; Polinger Foster, Karen (2009), Civilizations of ancient Iraq, Princeton: Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-13722-3

Finkelstein, J.J. (1955), “Subartu and Subarian in Old Babylonian Sources”, (Journal of Cuneiform Studies Vol 9, No. 1)

Hogg, Hope Waddell (1911). “Mesopotamia” (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Mesopotamia). In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 179–187.

Bahrani, Z. (1998), “Conjuring Mesopotamia: imaginative geography a world past”, in Meskell, L. (ed.), Archaeology under fire:Nationalism, politics and heritage in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East, London: Routledge, pp. 159–174, ISBN 978-0-415-19655-0

Struik, Dirk J. (1987). A Concise History of Mathematics (https://archive.org/detailsconcisehistoryof0000stru_m6j1). New York:Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-60255-4.